Multicultural
literacy is knowledge of cultures and languages, as well as the ways in
which multi-sensory data (text, sound, and graphics) may introduce slant, perspective,
and bias into language, subject matter, and visual content. We live in multiculural
societies, teach in multicultural settings, and our students often interact
with those who come from a different place in terms of gender, rural or urban
environments, nationalistically, linguistically, racially, and religiously.
Awareness of and sensitivity to culturally determined norms promote understanding.
In fact, when students embrace the principle that difference does not equal
defficiency, they gain an appreciation for the wealth of diversity that surrounds
all of us.
Multicultural literacy may be considered
a meta-framework with the potential for integration across curricula. In many
of the information literacy lessons on this site,
strategies for integrating multicultural thinking will be added on a pale orange
block (coming soon). These multicultural strategies follow the Information
Literacy Model used on this website for easy application. For those who
are looking for more detailed instructions on incorporating multiculturalism
into your classroom, you may read the ideas below in their entirety. Whenever
a culture, nation, or religion is mentioned in the comments below, the word
will be in bold text.
When helping students develop questions,
the teacher may use this exercise as an opportunity to build sensitivity to
the ways in which different cultural groups formulate and express questions.
For example,
It is considered polite among Singaporean Chinese to offer both the
positive and negative possibilities in practically every question that requires
a decision. For example, rather than asking, "Would you like to go to the
theatre?" they are likely to ask "Do you want to go to the theatre or not?"
The way in which a question is
answered may also differ across cultures. For example, English speakers would give a negative answer to the question "Isn't the document
available?" by responding "no." The intended meaning is: "No, the document
is not available." The Chinese interpretation
is different. The answer would be "yes", meaning "Yes, the document is not
available." (Originally from http://www.executiveplanet.com/index.php?title=Singapore.)
On the other hand, some Native
American cultures emphasize non-verbal communication. One study
showed that "The Navajo mothers believed
the high verbal and physical activity were negative attributes, whereas the European-American mothers believed them
to be positive. It is easy to imagine how differences in parents' attitudes
toward these kinds of behaviors would lead to the differences in the behavior
of children." (Guilmet, 1979 as cited by Tharp & Yamauchi, 1994 http://www.ncela.gwu.edu/pubs/ncrcdsll/epr10.htm)
In certain cultures, the act of asking
a question may be associated with specific members of the community or people
of authority (e.g., adults in the community, the patriarch of the family, government
officials, teachers, other professionals, etc.). When carrying out this exercise,
the teacher should work toward creating an environment of inclusiveness in which
all the members of the class feel comfortable to contribute to the discussion.
While it is the ideal that all students participate verbally in class, the teacher
should also recognize that some students may consider it appropriate to only
listen.
Different ethnic, religious, and
cultural factors may play significant roles in determining what topics students
address in their questions and how they approach particular topics. In order
to better understand how these forces work, some useful things for the teacher
to think about include:
What are possible topics that
cannot be asked about or may make certain students uncomfortable?
What topics may be overlooked
or addressed differently because of ethnic/religious/cultural factors?
How do certain questions mirror
the beliefs and/or biases of someone from a particular sociocultural background?
For example, gender and sexuality are two issues which can be viewed in a
number of different (and often contradictory) ways depending on an individual's
particular religious, cultural, and/or ethnic upbringing. Some Native
American cultures view gender and sexuality based on the concept
of "two spirit" or "twin spirit," which does not create rigid male/female,
heterosexual/homosexual dichotomies as found in Euro-American culture. As a result, a student from such a background may have different
questions than a student from a European Judeo-Christian background.
One of the things that the teacher
should keep in mind as the students are brainstorming
research questions is the way in which students may formulate questions
that echo the perspectives and "norms" of the dominant culture. For example,
students may come up with questions that reinscribe traditional gender assumptions
about the types of clothing a girl should wear or that a boy should be more
interested in basketball instead of ballet.
The interchange between individuals
of specific status is socially constructed. Therefore, the teacher should be
aware of the different cultural contexts in which students may be formulating
their questions: male/female domain, child/adult domain. As a result, students
may not feel as if their questions are legitimate enough based on these socially
imposed domains. Furthermore, the teacher should also consider the appropriateness
of a student's question depending on the role of the person asking the question
in relation to her/his ability to address the topic as an insider or outsider
to a particular culture. For example, arranged marriages are a common practice
in many traditional Asian and Middle Eastern cultures. However, this custom is generally frowned upon in Anglo-American society. The teacher should create an environment where differences are valued
and can be discussed in ways that build understanding.
The teacher should be sensitive to
the ways in which students engage in classroom dynamics. Depending on the student's
previous classroom experiences or informed knowledge, a classroom may be a place
for the free exchange of information or simply a place for unidirectional learning.
For example, classrooms can be different in different cultures, especially for
recent immigrants or international students, who may have a difficult time adjusting
to the U.S. educational system. Additionally,
due to cultural or socioeconomic status, a child may have never been in a classroom
before and would be unfamiliar with its ways of institutionalized learning or
may not have been informed by their parents or guardians of the expected classroom
conduct. For example, one study found that the Native
American participation structure for conversation does not rely so
heavily on non-verbal cues (e.g., gazes, body movement, gestures) as those found
among Anglo-American students. As a result,
"when [Native American] students came to
school and encountered this foreign and complicated participation structure,
they reacted by withdrawing from classroom activities." (Tharp & Yamauchi, 1994 http://www.ncbe.gwu.edu/miscpubs/ncrcdsll/epr10.htm)
Because it is important for every
student to have a voice in the classroom discussion, the teacher should remind
students about the different ways in which a particular topic can be approached.
Additionally, the teacher can explain to the class that because everyone has
their own personal experiences that differ from person to person, often there
is no one correct way of looking at things. One concern that the teacher should
take note of is whether students have the ability to raise questions approaching
the topic from a "non-traditional" perspective. For example, if covering the
topic of "family," are students able to raise questions about same-gender parents,
adoption/foster care, or divorce? Or when talking about "pets," can students
raise questions about the different socioeconomic or cultural meanings of owning
a pet? (e.g., pet as an expensive investment, pet as security/burglar alert
rather than friendly companion, pet as potential food/livestock, etc.)
The ability to categorize is a natural
and important cognitive process that allows us to make sense of the world's
infinite knowledge. However, categorization is a social construction; that is,
the way in which we choose to divide the worlds' knowledge is informed by culture
in time. In this information literacy lesson, the process of creating different
categories for the class questions provides the opportunity for illustrating
this principle. Although a group of questions seems to share a common theme
or topic, the categories the class has created to organize them have actually
been defined according to the students' shared perspectives/ideologies, which
are socioculturally specific. The teacher may take this opportunity to ask the
students whether they think that individuals from another country or from a
different culture would come up with the same types of categories. For example,
when students consider the words snails, frogs, horses, and pigeons, they may
group them under a general category of Animals. However, someone from another
country may choose to classify them all as Food or Types of Meat.
When sorting the questions by category,
the teacher can point out that the categorization process relies on the students
focusing on only one aspect of a question. For example, when dealing with issues
such as race and ethnicity, a person of mixed ancestry may not be easily classifiable
into a single rigid category. By ignoring all but one aspect of a particular
topic forces the individual to overlook or subjugate other topics/categories
into which the questions may also belong. The teacher may also ask the class
whether or not they feel that the "one question-one category" classification
scheme is appropriate and try to come up with different ways of solving the
problem.
Further readings on the interesting
world of categorization, classification and its social implications:
Berman, S. (1993). Prejudices
and antipathies: A tract on the LC subject heads concerning people. Jefferson,
NC: McFarland & Co. Bowker, G. C. and Star, S. L. (1999). Sorting things out:
Classification and its consequences. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
Foskett, A. C. (1984). Better
dead than read: Further studies in critical classification. Library Resources
and Technical Services, 28 (4), 346-359.
Lakoff, G. (1987). The Importance
of categorization. In Women, fire, and dangerous things: What categories reveal
about the mind, 5-11. Chicago, IL: University of Chicago Press.
Olson, H. A. (2001). Sameness
and difference: A cultural foundation of classification. Library Resources
and Technical Services, 45 (3), 115-122.
Olson, H. A. (1996). The power
to name: Marginalizations and exclusions of subject representation in library
catalogues. Dissertation, University of Wisconsin-Madison.
Because of factors such as socioeconomic,
cultural, and educational background, students may have different levels of
familiarity and experience with the different types of informational tools.
It is important to note that these tools are not necessarily accessible to everyone.
The teacher should foster an atmosphere
of cultural sensitivity, particularly when asking students about different types
of information resources. Different cultures may use different information sources.
For example, certain cultures might rely heavily on obtaining information from
other people in their community, such as a medicine man or the elders in the
family or society. Immigrant families may use ethnic community and commercial
resources if they are available in large urban settings-e.g., Spanish Harlem
or Jamaica in New York. The teacher should recognize the vast array of information
resources and should be mindful not to allow other students to degrade another
student's experiences due to cultural difference.
Part 2: Reference Tools to Aid
in Information Retrieval
Cultural biases can be found in many
reference sources. An awareness of potential biases can help broaden the types
of resources used in research. Type of sources:
Encyclopedias-General
Encyclopedias should be evaluated based on their country of origin since the
location of the author/publisher of a work is often a good indication of the
types of perspectives and potential biases that may be operating within the
work. For example, in the case of encyclopedias, the country in which the
work was produced may reflect particular national and dominant views of an
event, conflict, individual, group, etc. or may render them invisible through
exclusion. Furthermore, the specific articles in the encyclopedia may reflect
only one perspective. While these articles are written by subject matter authorities,
exposing students to multiple points of view promotes critical thinking and
broader understanding.
Encyclopedias-Subject
Subject encyclopedias are not available for all topics and it may be fruitful
to ask the class why they thought that was the case. The teacher may point
out that not only does the subject encyclopedia expand on a particular topic
that general encyclopedias do not, but may also cover topics that are marginalized
or overlooked by mainstream texts. For example, titles such as the Gale
Encyclopedia of Multicultural America and the Encyclopedia of African-American
Culture and History focus on areas that are not always included in the
more general U.S. encyclopedias and history
sources.
Again, as previously stated,
it is important to note who the publisher and/or editor of the work is in
order to recognize specific biases. For example, a religious encyclopedia
may have certain biases in covering such topics as homosexuality, gender
roles, parenting, abortion, etc.
Although subject encyclopedias
treat a particular subject in a more in-depth manner than a general encyclopedia,
it is still very difficult to cover each and every topic within a certain
field. If the teacher is giving a hands-on demonstration of a particular
subject encyclopedia, the teacher may ask the class if they can think of
a topic that is not covered in that encyclopedia. In particular, does it
exclude or marginalize less visible or "taboo" subjects? For example, does
a specialized encyclopedia about Mexico include information about the Chinese in Mexico? Does an encyclopedia of religion include Wicca or Satanism?
Dictionaries-General
The teacher should note the differences between American
English and British English,
as well as differences according to region and dialect. For example, American
English speakers use the word elevator while British
English speakers use the word lift. Also, the American and the British spellings of the same
word can also differ. For example, center vs. centre, color vs. colour.
The content and organization
of a dictionary in a non-Roman alphabet
can be a way to learn about linguistic differences. For example, students
can examine a Japanese dictionary and
learn about the different writing systems and cultural influences, and how
it is organized as distinct from an alphabetical listing. In general, hiragana
is used for native Japanese words, katakana is used for foreign (non-native
Japanese) words, kanji are Chinese characters, and romaji is the transliteration of Japanese into the Roman alphabet.
Dictionaries-Subject/Special The teacher should elaborate on the roles that special dictionaries play
and note when it is appropriate for students to use them. Often, these types
of dictionaries may exhibit similar forms of biases as those found in subject
encyclopedias in the terms that they choose to include and exclude.
When considering bilingual or
multilingual dictionaries, the challenge is to find the correct one-to-one
correspondence or to recognize when such a correspondence does not exist.
For example, the word body in English can take on multiple meanings depending on the context, such as "human body,"
"auto body," or "body of work." However, the Spanish language word for body does not have the same multiple meanings associated
with it, which means that the user needs to identify the appropriate corresponding
word: "human body" = cuerpo, "auto body" = carroceria, etc. Therefore, the
student cannot rely on just a bilingual dictionary for word usage and translation,
but also needs to verify the meaning of the word in the corresponding language
dictionary.
Biographies, Bibliographies,
and Indexes The teacher should note the content limitations of some reference sources.
If possible, the teacher should find out if specific information is provided
about the scope and method of compilation for each reference source in order
to ascertain potential biases. For example, when considering Who's Who
in American History, how did the editors choose who was important enough
to include? Did they include the contributions of people of color, women,
gays and lesbians, and other historically underrepresented groups in American
history?
Atlases
The teacher should stress the fact that it is critical to consider the date
of publication when using an atlas as an information resource. Due to the
constantly changing political conditions in our world, names of countries
and national boundaries are often in flux. For example, the teacher can have
students look at the changes in the former Yugoslavia or Soviet Union to illustrate
the time-sensitive nature of the information found in atlases.
Almanacs
As with atlases, the teacher should stress the importance of the date of publication,
as well as the date in which the data in the almanac were collected. Almanacs
may possess biases in regards to the amount of coverage of certain "facts."
For example, it is important to question what is the criteria for inclusion.
Additionally, some countries do not document statistics at the same level
of coverage or frequency as other countries, leading to poor comparative country
profiles.
Directories/Factbooks
The teacher may indicate both the availability and importance of directories
for specific groups based on ethnicity, gender, and sexual orientation that
aid in the access to different types of information. In considering such a
specialized resource, it is important to bring up the following questions:
What does the existence of these specialized directories say about "general"
directories? Why is there a need for these separate directories? For example,
the teacher may point out how a general directory may not provide extensive
coverage of services that are available to the Gay/Lesbian community. Therefore, a more specialized directory may be required to address
those needs.
Style & Writing Guides
The teacher should point out that these guides show how to write in "good"
or "standard" English, which does not
include "other" forms of English writing that may elucidate culturally specific
styles and dialects. For example, the teacher can compare the differences
between the pidgin English of Hawai'i or the Cajun dialect of Louisiana with that of "standard" American English.
The teacher should remind students to use culturally/ethnically appropriate
words and phrases when listing synonyms. Frequently, the commonly used term
for an ethnic group may not be accurate. For example, although the word Eskimo
is widely used, students should be respectful of the cultures involved by using
specific terms such as Inuit, Yupik, and Aleut instead.
The teacher should remind the class
that different countries may use different terms for similar concepts. For example,
in the United States, the indigenous people
are referred to as Native Americans, or American Indians, whereas in Canada the indigenous people are referred to using
the term First Nation.
The teacher may also point out that
when embarking on a search using keywords, many
search engines (particularly the ones used in libraries) employ what is known
as a "controlled vocabulary." This means that a predefined list of terms has
been developed to categorize different types of information, allowing for standardization
of language and avoiding synonymity. Such vocabulary has been developed within
the context of mainstream society and therefore exhibits biases based on such
factors as time period, culture, and gender. For example, in the Library of
Congress Subject Headings (a system widely used in university and academic libraries),
the terminology used to classify works about African
Americans has developed over time starting from "Negroes" to "Afro-Americans"
to the currently used "African Americans."
The teacher should also tell the
class to be mindful of the different spellings of certain words, particularly
words that are culturally and ethnically derived. For example, different ethnic
groups have variant spellings of their names: Filipino vs. Pilipino, Chicano vs. Xicano, etc.
As students start to formulate their
search statements, it is important for them to recognize the importance of culturally
and geographically specific terminology. When searching under synonyms
for their keywords, students may retrieve biased or inappropriate information
depending on the terms they choose. For example, when researching the topic
of "Allah," a possible synonym would be "God." However, when conducting a search
for "God," the student may only retrieve references to the Judeo-Christian concept of "God." Hence, it is important to consider beforehand the possible
implications of the words that are being used in the search.
Students should also recognize that
certain synonyms may be discipline-specific. For example, (table) salt is the
household name for sodium chloride. Because of the different word usages, students
should use the term "salt" when searching for cooking ingredients but should
use "sodium chloride" when searching for chemical compounds for science experiments.
Similarly, students should use the word "violin" when searching for classical
music but use "fiddle" when searching for folk music, even though both terms
refer to the same instrument.
When conducting research on a topic
related to a specific geographical area, students should keep in mind the different
perspectives and biases the information may possess. For example, if a student
decided to research the historical development of apartheid in South
Africa, the student will need to assess from whose perspective the
information has been written. Is the information written by a South African
or by someone from outside that country? Does it present the perspective from
the white population in South Africa or
the black population in South Africa?
Teachers should note that Boolean
Operators can be a very difficult concept to grasp for many students, as it
requires the use of search descriptors which stress the alignment of search
terms along a linear dichotomy. The teacher should keep in mind different styles
of learning (inductive vs. deductive) when developing plans to illustrate this
type of search strategy. Research on learning styles has found that individuals
of a particular culture use a particular learning style. For example, individuals
of Native American culture view the world
in a holistic manner and tend to use a deductive approach to learning.
The teacher should note that when
referring to the "general web," there is an inclination toward the English language and U.S. culture. If students wanted
to access information that is not geared solely for an Anglo-American audience, how would they develop a search strategy to accomplish this? The teacher
might also have the students consider how effective are online translation programs?
The teacher may want to ask the class
what types of search tools they would use to uncover information about different
countries or geographic regions. The teacher can point out that in order to
access regional or county-specific information, specialized search engines covering
these areas should be used. (See Lesson: Understanding URL's )
The teacher should be sure to indicate
the disadvantages of having information housed in the "invisible web." For example,
invisibility raises issues surrounding information access: Who is allowed to
use these web sites? What level of education is required to learn about these
sites and utilize their resources? If better information is available on the
invisible web, then this leads to questions of information elitism-i.e., the
best resources are available only to those who can afford them or have the knowledge
to access them.
It is important for teachers to
point out that although the web has the potential to be a free and equitable
information resource for all who have access to it, in reality because of socioeconomic
and cultural biases, it has yet to achieve such a state. You may feel this is
a harsh statement, but when you examine the number of people in the world (well
over 6.5 billion people) and compare that to the number of people with access
to the Internet (over 800
million by 2004), the difference is huge. Regular Internet users still constitute
a very small percentage of the world population.
Conversely, because everyone who
uses the web has access to the "visible" web, it is even more important to be
able to evaluate its information for possible biases/inaccuracies so as to prevent
the spread of misinformation.
When evaluating which web search
engines are best for their research, the teacher should point out to the students
the subjective nature of such an assessment. Depending on the student's topic,
different social and cultural forces may come into play. For example, would
the student benefit from language or area specific tools? If so, does the search
tool differentiate between countries/regions that use the same language but
are culturally and geographically separate? (e.g., Spain and Latin America) When applicable, are
non-romance language tools available?
It is important to note the existence
of a U.S. bias in basic website addresses.
When considering a general URL, the lack of a country marker automatically refers
to a U.S.-authored site. This operates under
the general assumption that websites are geared for a U.S. audience (and in
turn, implies an understanding of American cultural practices/references that are often assumed to be "common knowledge"),
as well as a U.S.-imposed standard of web-based
information.
In helping students identify the
international scope of the web, teachers should acquaint students with the different
country markers used to identify websites that originate outside the United
States. For example, ".pe" stands for Peru and ".ca" indicates Canada. Hence, a commercial Canadian website would end in ".com.ca".
· As a comparative learning approach, teachers may choose websites that exist
in more than one country. Examples may include CNN.com (which has a U.S., Europe, and Asia edition) and yahoo.com (which has different sites by country/region, including Asia, U.K., Mexico, Brazil, India,
etc., as well as Yahoo en español). The
teacher may take this opportunity to review with students the different homepages
for these sites, noting any cultural differences between them. (For example,
at CNN.com, which news stories are most important to which parts of the world?
At yahoo.com, how are the different special-interest categories reflective of
the different countries' cultures?)
When students are asked to judge
the usefulness of a web site based on the concept of "good information," they
should ask themselves what constitutes "good information." Teachers should have
students carefully evaluate the site based on certain evaluation criteria (for
example: objectivity/bias, language, subject mastery, and resources) to arrive
at the conclusion that a site is "good."
Teachers should ask students to remember
to define the ultimate goals of their search-what types of information are being
sought and from what perspective? For example, if students are conducting searches
on evolution or adaptation, they need to consider the various perspectives on
the subject (scientific, religious, anthropological, etc.) before they judge
what is "good" and "not good."
Depending on the topic being researched,
at times the "best" information may come from a site that is not in English.
For example, if a student is researching the popularity of soccer in Brazil,
the student would find the best resources in Portugese,
under the term futebol.
As students come up with their own
criteria for what is relevant and useful, it should be noted that these criteria
are based on student's own values and frame(s) of knowledge. Students should
be encouraged to try to view a particular topic from many different angles,
including the mainstream views as well as "alternative" perspectives. For example,
when addressing the issue of capital punishment, determining the relevancy of
information sources can be influenced by factors such as religious, cultural,
and political viewpoints.
While using the Mythica website,
keep in mind it has a limited scope. Although the author states "It is by no
means a complete work and I try to update.."; nevertheless, there is a sense
that there is broad coverage because he covers the various topics ".from all
over the world." Currently, there is no distinction made between different African mythologies (the website says that distinctions between tribes/cultures/countries
will eventually be incorporated). Asian mythology does not include any Southeast
Asian myths (Khmer and Indonesian mythology are grouped in the "other" category). The Folktales page has a disproportionate
number of tales from regions such as Europe and Native America, but only one from Central
America and none from Africa.
Arthurian legend and Greek heroic legend
get their own sections in Folklore but non-European legends do not.
Although it is the case that the
dictionary definition of authority includes 1) A source of correct information
and 2) an expert on a subject whose advice or opinion is accepted; from a multicultural
perspective, it is important to identify who determines what is "correct" or
"accepted." Students need to attempt to answer this question before they can
determine the authority of a particular source of information. For example,
a government official or police may typically be considered authorities but
there are cases where they have been found to provide incorrect information
or in some countries, they are not to be trusted altogether. An example of authority
as it relates to accuracy is that at one time the most learned European philosophers all thought that the world was flat but it was eventually determined
that it was round. Thus, in our socially constructed world, it would be appropriate
to also consider time and geography as factors influencing judgments of authority.
When determining the point of view
of information resources, it is often useful for students to also evaluate their
own perspective in relation to the resource. Often, the process of identifying
resources for biases toward one thing or another tends to assume that the person
doing the evaluating is able to occupy a neutral/objective space in which to
assess the information. However, the decision-making process involves using
a student's own filter of his/her own socialized knowledge of the world. This
may be further complicated when the decision-making process is at the group
level where a group perspective may be reached by consensus or majority (often
mainstream) rule. (See also Lesson: Determining Relevancy)
For example, when AIDS is examined as a topic, multiple perspectives will be
addressed in the existing information resources, including religious, gender,
lesbian and gay, medical, regional, moral and legal rights perspectives. An
examination of the information resources located may lead an individual student
to reach a particular viewpoint of the topic. If his/her perspective represents
a minority viewpoint, the teacher should encourage discussion of all individual
perspectives when a student group or the class as a whole is asked to reach
a group viewpoint in order that everyone has a voice. The teacher may also make
a choice to include his/her voice on the subject.
Revisionist history enables the examination
of issues that were overlooked or neglected in mainstream historical writings.
For example, the issue of the Civil War (mentioned in the lesson) may appear
to be a stable topic, but more recent works may examine issues previously not
addressed, like the role of Native Americans in the Civil War or the role of African Americanwomen in the War.
Dated materials should be used discriminatingly.
For example, a subject/topic may be stable but information sources that contain
stereotypes and prejudices may still exist. Consider how Ferdinand Magellan
is depicted as "discoverer" of the new world. He was killed by "savages" in
the Philippines rather than indigenous people protecting their own land from foreign invaders.
Different views of time should be
considered. This is an opportunity to examine "Western"
(e.g., Gregorian calendar) vs. other calendars (e.g. Aztec calendar, lunar calendar, Japanese system
based on Imperial reign, etc.)
In addition to the different news
aspects mentioned in the lesson, not only is an event/social movement/discovery
reported in different types of sources at different times, but the way in which
it is reported or described also changes over time. Generally speaking, it should
be noted that critical analysis of an event increases over time. In other words,
a newspaper article or television newscast covering an event as it is unfolding
may just report on the facts of an event while months or years later a book
would provide an in-depth analysis and social critique of that same event. For
example, a book published in 1990 about the Civil Rights Movement in the United
States would be able to historicize the event in terms of its far-reaching
impact on the legal rights of African Americans as well as its influences on other subsequent social movements (e.g., American
Indian Movement, Free Speech Movement, Women's Liberation Movement, etc.) in such a way that would not be possible for a newspaper
published in the 1960s. The newspaper could only report on the actual events
taking place with no clue to its future impact on U.S. history. Another example would be the way the Cuban Missile Crisis was reported in 1962, in which newspapers used inflammatory anti-Communist
language that reflected the political zeitgeist of that particular moment in
history. In contrast, a book published about the Cuban Missile Crisis written 30 years after the event would not use the same type
of urgent language.
The teacher should help students
recognize different biases that exist when using various information sources.
For example, if the student decided to research the events surrounding the Rodney
King verdict, the mainstream news would use the term LA Riots or Uprisings,
while some members of the African American community would call it an insurrection, protest, or rebellion in reaction to
the "not guilty" verdict. Meanwhile, the Korean American community refers to the event as Sa-I-Gu (literally, "April 29th"). Therefore,
already we can see there are at least six different terms that can be used to
represent the same event. The teacher should point out that in order to get
the full range of information about a topic, students should think critically
about the different languages and terms used to describe the event, as well
as the accompanying perspective and biases reflected in the terminology. For
an excellent work addressing the multiple perspectives surrounding the Rodney
King verdict, please see:
Twilight - Los Angeles, 1992 on
the Road: A Search for American Character. Anna Deavere Smith. New York,
Anchor Books, 1994. This play is available in book or video format.
The teacher should also point out
that different forms of media use different ways of conveying information. For
example, television relies on visual imagery to depict an event, while radio
and newspapers use the verbal and written word. Students should examine what
types of words are chosen to describe the event, and how those words show cultural/political
biases? For example, these headlines were used to describe related events in
the Middle East by different papers:
"Israeli army sweeps into Nablus to crush extremists" - Independent, UK 05-31-2002
"Israeli troops in 3 West Bank cities" - CNN 05-31-2002
"Arab and Jewish neighbors put politics aside
to watch Cup" - Sporting News 05-31-2002
When researching different events
on the web, remember that information on the web is largely written from an U.S. perspective. In order to get
a greater range of coverage, students should also consider finding sources from non-U.S. or non-English web sites.
IV. SENSEMAKING
For the following exercises, it is
important for the teacher to choose articles that can be of interest to all
the students in the class. Frequently, Eurocentric
materials are primarily included in the classroom curriculum, which appeals
and are most familiar to only a certain demographic of students. As a result,
sensemaking activities will be less successful, not because students do not
understand the assignment or the materials, but because they may have a harder
time focusing on information that may be difficult for them to relate to.
When performing this scanning exercise,
students should be aware of the differences in the presentation of printed and
graphic material in Euro-American culture.
In order to illustrate this point, the teacher can bring in examples of non-U.S. publications for comparison purposes. For example, an examination of an East
Asian or Hebrew language book
can reveal the different direction in reading (up-down, right to left), differences
in the placement of the table of contents, etc. Alternatively, the teacher can
demonstrate these points using an East Asian or Hebrew language website.
The teacher may point out that the
format of a book may vary depending on where it was published. For example,
some books or articles may include abstracts, inside flap information, or brief
descriptions or overviews. These different types of synopses can be of help
to students in their skimming exercise. Furthermore, the teacher can also note
that publishing practices differ from country to country. As a result, students
may have certain expectations about international books (based on their own
familiarity with books from their respective cultures and communities) and that
these expectations may not always be met, i.e., some types of synopses may be
found while others may not.
The teacher should be sensitive to
the fact that skimming and scanning exercises may be more difficult for ESL students or students with learning disabilities.
If the research question is open-ended,
it may be challenging for the class to agree upon the "most important" pieces
of information. Depending on the students' cultural backgrounds, students may
prioritize and process information in many different ways. For example, if the
research question that needs to be answered is "Why was James Baldwin an important U.S. writer?" there may be multiple facets
beyond simply "four important pieces of information" that answer the question.
Depending on what is subjectively most important for any given student, reasons
for James Baldwin's cultural and literary importance can include: his depictions
of African American life, his openness about
his homosexuality, his numerous literary
awards, his best-selling novels, his critical essays and civil rights activism,
his experiences as a U.S. expatriate, etc. Hence, there may not be one correct
way of answering this question, but rather, a multitude of perspectives depending
on a student's subjective priorities.
In determining the relevance of a
certain piece of information some students may give priority to supporting information
from which the answer may be inferred rather than explicitly stated. This is
often the case when students encounter information that directly reflects or
impacts their own lives. Particularly when dealing with topics related to ethnicity
and religion, students may be able to pick up on culturally-specific cues which
others from outside that culture may not find important. For example, if a student
is reading an article about the popularity of Indian/South
Asian cuisine in the United Kingdom,
a student may find that the most important aspect of the article would be how
it addresses issues of Indian/South Asian transnationalism and diasporic communities rather than just about ethnic cuisine
in the U.K.
Students need to evaluate not only
whether the information they have gathered is sufficient, but also ask themselves
if it provides the types of perspectives and points of view that they are looking
for.
Is the student trying to write
an objective report? If so, are all sides of an argument represented?
What are the biases present in
the information or their sources? For example, if a student is writing a report
on the role of Christian missionaries
in Central America, what type of information
is included and from whose perspective?
Does the student include the perspective
of the indigenous people? The missionaries?
Does the information have a religious
bias? A colonial bias? A cultural bias?
Does it take into account different
geographical factors, such as recognizing specific countries/civilizations
and cultural localities?
If appropriate, does the student
search in languages other than English?
Students should be aware of their
own subjectivities when reflecting on the information they have gathered. The
teacher may point out that the knowledge or value system of one's own culture
can lead to the acceptance or rejection of certain types of information. For
example, someone who is vegetarian may reject
information about the benefits of meat as part of a healthy diet, while a meat-eater may be skeptical about any information written by someone who is a die-hard vegan.
Students should learn to critically
evaluate the content and form of their presentation. Key questions they should
ask include:
Does the representation fit the
content? And vice-versa?
Is it culturally appropriate?
For example, if the student is doing a presentation about Native
American cultures, the student should avoid using stereotypical
representations such as the ones that are commonly used in sports teams: the
Cleveland Indians mascot Chief Wahoo, the Atlanta Braves' "tomahawk chop,"
or the name Washington "Redskins."
When students consider the question
"Who is your audience?" it is important they are sensitive to issues such as
race/ethnicity, culture, class, gender, sexuality, age, and ability.
Are there any access problems?
Are there any possible sources
of comprehension difficulties?
Has the presenter considered whether
multilingual resources or services to those with physical or mental disabilities
need to be incorporated into the presentation?
Is the student prepared to use
culturally appropriate language?
During the practice presentations,
the teacher should encourage both the presenters and the audience to be vocal
about any questions or misgivings they may have regarding the form or language
of the presentation, particularly in regards to cultural or language appropriateness
and representation. The teacher should encourage students from different ethnic
and cultural backgrounds to participate in providing constructive criticism
about the presentations, noting that the insider's perspective into a particular
culture is especially appreciated.
The teacher should encourage expressiveness
and articulateness in presentation, especially since some cultures may not highly
value speaking in public. This might be the case for Native
American cultures (see Developing Different Types
of Questions Multicultural Strategies) and in Chinese culture, there might be deference to the authority of the teacher.
The teacher may want to include
as part of the assessment process the students' reflections regarding the different
types of influences they found in the different information sources they used
throughout the research process. By incorporating this into the final presentation,
each student will be able to share his or her unique perspectives and observations,
thereby increasing the cultural understanding within the classroom.
Note: This page was last
updated June 20, 2002. Cultural Literacy Integration was created by Clara
Chu
This content was orignially created and posted March 5, 2002
These resources were created to support the AT&T/UCLA Initiative for the 21st Century Literacies.
